Doubting Thomases

Doubting Thomases

In "Accursed House" a story by the French writer Emile Gaboriau, the tenants one by one desert Vicomte's house doubting his good intention of lowering their rent by one-third. After the death of his miser uncle, Vicomte decreases the rent out of sheer generosity. He is, however, misunderstood, and before long a rumor goes rife that the house is haunted, which in turn makes the tenants leave the house. Certainly, the writer is not only trying to show the funny side up but also lashing the very human nature of doubting others' benevolent intent. Who is to blame, one can question. Aren't we all nonetheless doubting Thomases? Haven't we doubted our friends, husbands, wives and children? Haven't we tried to discover ugly designs in the works done by our fellow beings in good faith?

Othello and King Lear serve as fine examples of heroic and famous Doubting Thomases we have heard of and read about. The undaunted warrior Othello sets his own doom driven by his infidelity to doubt the fidelity of Desdemona, a wife so faithful to him. Likewise, we know of King Lear's pathetic end precipitated by his act of doubting the genuine filial love of his youngest daughter, Cordelia. In both these plays, Shakespeare, with a real understanding of human weaknesses, portrays these characters that seem to be more like human nature personified.

Why are people so skeptic? Why do we believe in none of our leaders and bureaucrats today? Perhaps, we haven't come across people who have sincerely tried to work for the country putting aside their own interests. Is it the world that makes us Doubting Thomases or we are born skeptics? These questions are difficult to answer. Nevertheless, one thing is sure: we grow up to be better skeptics as we live longer in the world devoid of faith. In offices, pubs, schools, colleges and even temples people's talks, curiously, feature mainly on how they are aware of others' mistakes (and, of course, they think that they are always right). The sense of complimenting others for even little things and praising others' sincerity make your demeanor pleasant, which is, however, lacking in us.

            Just the other day, we were having 'aalu chops' in the college cafeteria. It was a cool morning and hot chops were all our never-satiating guts desired. One of us was serving the rest, for self-help is a custom in our cafeteria. The prowling demon of doubt suddenly sneaked into our joyous gathering: 'Oh, those must be yesterday's stale chops,' came the hasty remark leaving everyone startled for a while. Mind you, those chops were steaming hot, and the young man who gave the verdict wasn't the one who was going to pay for the breakfast. It had but only given a hiatus to our jokes and laughter for a couple of seconds, which had been going on for quite a long while.

            Such is our plight. 'Doubt everything and everybody' has been the worldview of people. Old habits die hard. But you must make a beginning. You must pluck some courage to break away from this tradition of doubting. It's time we began recognizing goodness latent in others and be especially careful about not penalizing someone's good intent. Else, we will unfortunately be adding to the catalogue of uncountable Doubting Thomases.

Factors that Influence in the Proper Use of Communicative Approach in English Language -Teaching

Factors that Influence in the Proper Use of Communicative         Approach in English Language -Teaching

          The former English curriculum was based on oral structural situational approach, but this approach was not so effective to teach English language teaching therefore, many students hadn't passed S.L.C. in English. But the communicative approach was highlighted in new curriculum of secondary level, the students are more motivated and pass- percentage is also in increasing order. All this comparative study between oral structural and communicative approach had been done by the researcher and came to conclusion that communicative approach is suitable approach than former one, but still, it has not been used properly. The present need is to find out the factors that influence in proper use communicative approaches. The factors are given below

                         Over-Crowd Pupils.                                                     The teacher and student ratio is seen greater than average ratio. It is a serious factor in the use of communicative approach because the teacher does not get sufficient time to involve in communicative process. Instead of doing so, the teacher is always busy to control the students. It is very difficult to proceed ahead in their teaching\learning activities. So due to the over-crowded pupils, the teacher hasn't got time to use communicative approach properly.

                         Student Background.                                                            The basic standard in English of primary and lower- secondary level is very poor. So even in secondary level, the students do not know English language. The teacher face many difficulties to teach them. Instead of giving textual meaning by using communicative approach, the teacher has to lose the time in translating in mother - tongue. That's why, the poor base standard of students is an obstacle to use communicative teaching.

Teaching Aids                                                             

         To teach this new curriculum of secondary level in English subject, it has assigned teaching aids like cassette, audio-visual aids, newspaper and reference books. But all these teaching aids are not available in school. This also causes difficulty.

English teachers                                                           English teachers themselves are the major factors that influence in the use of communicative approach. They are not aware of modern methodologies has implemented, they do not get a training. To use the communicative approach properly, the teachers must be trained, qualified and experienced.

Headmaster                                                                             Some of the headmasters are still untrained. As they do not understand the problems and solve the problems of the English teacher. They always want to impose them heavy load and do not buy the teaching aids. So, the headmaster should arrange conductive environment to English teachers for teaching English.

Communicative Approach

Communicative Approach to Language Teaching

Definition of the 'Communicative Approach'

          The term communicative approach' was developed by Wilkins (1972), who proposed a functional or communicative definition of language that could have served as a basis for developing communicative syllabuses for, national and functional approaches are all the synonyms used to mean the same thing.

          According to Halliday (1976), a communicative/functional approach to language teaching means:

(i)                  Investigating how language is used

(ii)                Trying to find out the purposes that language serves for us and

(iii)             How we are able to achieve those purposes through listening and speaking, reading and writing. It also means seeking to explain the nature of language in fundamental terms i.e. seeing whether language itself has been shaped by use and in what ways the form of the language has been determined by the function, it has been evolved to serve.

          This approach serves as the backbone of a language course based on language functions or speech acts rather than on units of grammar or situations with a grammar focus. As the purpose of language teaching is to communicate, the learners are to teach functional use of language rather than grammar and its rules.

Origin of Communicative Approach

          In 1971, a group of experts began to investigate the possibility of developing language course. The group used studies of the need of European language learners. D. A. Wilkins (1972) proposed a functional or communicative definition of language that could serve as a basis for developing communicative syllabus for language teaching. Wilkins's' contribution was an analysis of the communicative meanings that a language learners need to understand and express. He attempted to demonstrate the systems of meaning that lay behind the communicative uses of language through traditional concept of grammar and vocabulary. Wilkins in his notional syllabus has described two types of meaning viz. (i) categories of communicative function viz. requests, denials, offers, complaints and (ii) notional categories (concept such as time, sequence, quantity, location, frequency).

Objectives of the Communicative Approach

          Both American and British proponents of the communicative approach to language teaching have explained the communicative approach aims at:

(i)                  Making communicative competence, the goal of language teaching and using language as a means of expression.

(ii)                Making communicative or developing the procedures for the teaching of the four language skills that acknowledge the inter-dependence of language as a semiotic system and an object of learning.

(iii)             Making language as a means of expressing values and judgement about oneself or others

(iv)             Using language learning within the school campus curriculum.

          Those above objectives, though meant for 'communicative approach' are generally applicable to any teaching situation. There is no particular objective of communicative language teaching, only since such an approach assumes that language teaching will reflect the particular needs of the target language learners. These needs may be in the domains of reading, writing listening or speaking each of which can be approached from communicative perspectives.

Processes of Teaching Communicative Approach

          There have been various ways of teaching any approach of any language. So, in this communicative approach, too, some processes of teaching have been put forward. Among the, the well-established processes have been discussed below.

                      Presentation

                      Controlled Practice

                      Free Practice

          The teaching policy may change at each of these stages. So let's discuss them in details.

(i)      Presentation

          At this stage, the teacher is firmly in control and doing most (if not all) the talking. There is no possibility of error, because the student is not invited to speak.

(ii)     Controlled Practice

          At this stage, the teacher remains in control. The possibility of errors has been reduced to a minimum, but when they occur, the teacher corrects them until the class produces the forms correctly. At this stage, students' talking time is equal to or greater than teacher's talking time.

(iii)    Free Practice

          At this stage, the teacher relaxes control. Mistakes will occur, but students will correct each other or themselves when challenged much greater than teacher's talking time. The teacher will only intervene if serious problem is arisen.

In fact, there is no abrupt shift from on stage to another. There may be a change of the context for practice when shifting from the controlled to the free practice stage. As to the shift form presentation to the controlled practice, anyone will agree that it is practically impossible to separate these stages because one stage will flow inevitably into the other.

          The above figure shows that the analysis of the teaching process as separated into three distinct stages is, therefore, more of a typical analysis than an exact description of what happens in the classroom. In practice, the three stages are moulded together, into a pattern which represents a smooth transition from total teacher control to nil teacher control. The process is a continuum.

Importance of 'Communicative Approach' to Language Teaching

          The 'Communicative approach' being new in our context may have created some problems for the beginners. It has, nevertheless, great importance in our English language teaching\learning system. They may be broadly discussed here below.

                      It is important in the sense that it takes the communicative facts of language into account from the beginning without losing grammatical and situational factors.

                      It can make the student sensitive to the need of appropriate language in a given situation. Besides, the 'Communicative Approach' to language teaching focuses on the more important goal of using the language for a purpose.

                      This approach enormously enhances motivation. Instead of learning to manipulate language item in vacuum, the student will be able to recognize the practical value of the language he learns

                      It is important for specialist courses viz. Scientists, Pilots, Doctors etc.

  

Conclusion

          Communicative Language Teaching is best considered an approach rather than a method. Thus although a reasonable degree of theoretical consistency can be discerned at the level of language and learning theory, at the level of design and procedure. There is much greater room for individual interpretation and variation than most methods permit. It could be that one version among the various proposals for syllabus, models, exercise types and classroom activities may gain wider approval in the future, giving communicative language teaching a status similar to other teaching models. On the other hand, divergent interpretation may lead to homogeneous sub-groups.

Teaching Approaches

Structural Approach

          Structural approach has derived its basic principles from structural linguistics and behavioural psychology. In Britain, influenced by Otto Jesperson, Daniel John, and then prevalent direct method, Palmer made an intensive effort to establish a scientific basis for language teaching. He analysed English and classified its major grammatical structures into sentence patterns. Those patterns were selected and graded according to the learners' level. He believed that those formulaic patterns would be easier than descriptive construction rules to internalise. So he emphasizes their oral presentation and practice at the initial stage. He expressed his views and perspectives in Palmer (1922). He practised his approach in Japan from 1922 to 1935. A.S. Hornby joined him there in the late 1920s and continued the work he had initiated.

          This approach overemphasises the learners' mastery of formal knowledge of the target language. Intending to promote the communicative ability, language teachers involve the students in practicing the systematically organized language units till they become automatic. This approach advocates the primacy of speech over writing. Thus, the teacher's effort is focused on developing students' oral proficiency. Here correct pronunciation along with stress, rhythm, and intonation is a must and every mistake is considered an impediment in learning a language. So immediate correction is accorded. Language learning is thought to be mechanical behaviour, not an intellectual process. As a result, through ample practice of the basic structures, the teachers focus on forming correct habits in learners anticipating that it will enable them to use those structures automatically and correctly whenever the situation calls for. The techniques devised for practice are different kinds of drills, such as repetition, substitution, expansion, question-answer and so on.

         

The Situational Approach

          Language is always used in reference to a particular context or situation and hence, the full meaning of a language unit is known only when this situation is known. In fact, language relies as much on situation as an other linguistic devices for signalling meaning. It was A.S. Hornby himself who used to term situational approach in the title of a popular series of articles published in 1950s.

          Language teaching will not be effective only by presenting orally and giving structures. The teacher has to create certain situation. Situation may be real or contrived. Real situations are those which the students experience directly at the time of learning, those can see, hear or touch. They are the class- room situations where the teachers and pupils use the language item naturally in association with the situations. For example if the teacher utters the sentence 'I am dancing', he/ she has to dance himself before the students. Every teaching item cannot be linked up with students' direct experiences. In such cases, the teacher has to create contrived situations, visual aids, pictures models will be helpful. The sort of teaching in language teaching makes teaching and learning foreign language effective and purposeful.

Process of Teaching OSS Approach in the Classroom

          OSS approach, the combination of oral structure situational approach is a teacher- oriented approach or it is a teacher directed method. Later, more active participation by the learner is encouraged. The teacher is the model. He creates the situation for presenting the item makes the pupil repeat and, thus, he has to be skilful manipulator.

          The lesson begins with a listening practice, mainly for pronunciation. It includes, repetition in chorus of what the teacher says. Individual students are asked to repeat the teacher's model. The teacher creates the situation to present the new item. He gets students to ask and answer questions using the language pattern they already know sometime the repetition of those words or groups of words which cause trouble. While introducing the items through the situation then created and using mime, gestures, prompt words, the teacher elicits examples for the new patterns introduced. The teacher uses substitution drills, question-answer drilling to get one student to ask a question and answer to answer until most students have practices. He/she then invites the attention of the pupils to the errors by indicating the error by shaking his head, repeating the errors, etc. But whenever it is possible, he makes the pupils correct their own mistake.

Educational Policy in Nepal

New Education System-Plan (NESP 2028) in Nepal

          New education system plan (NESP 2028) was a new plan that made our educational system more systematic and modern. It was really a bold step, and forwarded systematic study in the field of education. Before the implementation of NESP (2028), there were not systematic rules and regulations and English courses had literary texts. The grammar translation method was used in teaching. NESP brought overall change because it made language teaching more purposeful and the English courses were shifted from literature based to language oriented. The objectives of teaching English under the NESP (2028) were to enable the students:

To exchange their ideas and views with a person who speaks, reads and writes English, no matter what nationality, he is and which part of the world, he lives in, and to acquire knowledge, ideas, skills and techniques imparted formally or informally through English whether in spoken, written or printed form. (Curriculum 2028:61)

         

          New courses were designed and English began to teach from Grade IV. Textbooks were prepared according to the aims and objectives of NESP (2028). Oral structural situational (OSS) approach, the new approach of teaching was introduced. Instead of focussing Grammar Translation Method (GMT), the structures of the language were practised to speak and write English language more effectively. Though the English course after NESP (2028) brought overall change in the field of education, it could not improve teaching as was expected because training teachers and physical facilities were inadequate.

National Education Commission (NEC 2049 B.S.)     

          After twenty one year of NESP (2028) implementation, another commission which is known as National Education Commission (NEC) was formed in 2049 B.S. NEC (2049) tried to avoid the weakens of NESP (2028). It also brought a new change in education system especially in English courses. New textbooks from Grade IV to higher level were changed step by step. The communicative approach was gradually introduced and techniques were applied. Teaching of English from Grade I was applied. The course design of high-school was also changed. However, the situation of teaching\learning English is still the same as it had been. As such the survey relevant to the old course based on 0SS approach and new course based on communicative approach has been inevitable.

          English language teaching\learning activities are in the process of change. Significant developments on the nature of foreign language teaching\learning have been developed. The western countries have developed bewildering approaches, methods and techniques. We have been adopting them without making any researches and experiments on their suitability. We used some methods like grammar translation method, direct method and oral structural situational approach. Because of the changing needs of English for Nepalese learners, these perspectives on teaching language seemed as if they are out of date.

          Currently, communicative approach is a major concept in English language teaching. It has been applied since early 1970s in the west. It prepares the learners for communication by involving them in learning process. It enables the students to communicate using the target language. Still some teachers emphasize learning structure of foreign language but structures are not enough to learn languages because students are only able to know structures and are unable to speak and write target language. The current textbooks of high - school focus on communicative activities. The former approach is teacher - oriented where as the present one is student oriented. This is a brief survey on how English was introduced in Nepal and which methods were used in teaching it.

Life Without Chiefs (Marvin Harris, USA)

Life Without Chiefs

(Marvin Harris, USA)

Are you ready to believe that the humans can exit without ruling and being ruled? Once think about the present world. According to Marvin Harris, the majority part of the existence world went on without chiefs. It has been only ten thousand years nice man began to settle down in villages. However, man has far longer history. The past was without kings, queens, presidents and ministers.