creative construction theory

THE ARAL SEA: AN ENVIRONMENTAL CRISIS

The pressure to make economic development and the short- sighted responses to this pressure are the cause of a great damage. It will make economic development impossible and the region unliveable. The recent history of the Aral Sea has proved this fact. In the 1950s the sea covered 66,000 square kilometres. It had an average depth of 16 meters. Its water was fresh. However, by 1990 the Aral Sea became almost half and was divided into two separate lakes. Its water became just one third of its 1950s volume. The sea's salt content has increased by almost 300 percent. The basic cause of the damage to Aral Sea was the use of irrigation to expand agriculture.

The reduced flow of water into the Aral Sea has had disastrous environment and economic consequences for the sea and its basin fish has died. Cotton plantation has become impossible. Birds and mammals have halved. In addition, the salt carried by the storm has made the surrounding land infertile. Short-sighted agricultural practices have increased the levels of salts, pesticides, and other damaging chemicals in the environment. Because of the chemical contamination of drinking water, there has been an increase in human health problems. In 1990, a scientific conference decided that the Aral Sea region was an ecological disaster area in need of urgent action to prevent its complete destruction. The story of the Aral Sea is one example of the global problem of desertification through human activities. In addition, it has helped us to find out the cause of desertification and an alternative model for economic development.

ECOLOGY, OVERPOPULATION, AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Up until two hundred years ago, humans did not have a significant effect on the ecology of planet earth because there were not more than one billion people. Because of the massive increase in population in the last two centuries, damage to the ecology from human activities is considerable and may become much worse. Locally, people respond to the pressure of overpopulation in ways that destroy the ecology of the areas they live in. They cultivate the hilly areas, where soil erosion makes the land unproductive very soon. The disappearance of tropical forest – a result of countries attempts at economic development – is causing great damage to the natural resources and the ecology of those nations. The destruction of the world's tropical forests will have negative consequences for the entire globe.

Family-planning programs, which have proved successful in some developing countries, could contribute to the solution of the overpopulation problem. They could make economic growth increase. The number of children currently in the worldÚs population means that birth control cannot be the sole solution to the problem of overpopulation. The worldÚs population is sure to increase. Social and economic development is also an essential part of a solution to the environmental damage caused by overpopulation. Economic development, which is the answer to the problem of overpopulation, is also the cause of massive damage to the environment. Europeans and North Americans today are asking the people of the developing nations not to overexploit natural resources, which they have been doing for centuries to develop themselves. In both developing and developed countries, traditional economic development must be replaced by policies and practices that are sustainable.

UNSUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION

The use of pesticides and the fossil fuel are not the only causes of environmental damage in the present time. Humans have been damaging the environment for much longer than the last century. Clearing fields for agricultural use, which began ten thousand years ago, had a very disruptive effect on the environment. But man used water and fertilizing material to sustain agriculture. The settled societies that agriculture made possible also placed considerable strain on the environment. They cut down trees for fuel and farming land. Mesopotamia, the Mediterranean basin, and the Central America rain forests were areas where the ecology was disrupted by early human activities. Here the Mayan civilization will be discussed in detail.

The Mayas had built many cities with wonderful temples, palaces, and public buildings. And the total Mayan population was 5 million. To grow the crops needed to support their large population, the Mayas replaced the forest with a complex artificial environment consisting of raised fields and terraces with a drainage system. The Mayas' expanding system of agriculture collapsed when the ecology of the region could no longer sustain it. There was soil erosion in the hills and the lowland was flooded. As a result, the crops decreased. The loss of food production caused increase fighting for the available resources Ù this destroyed the Mayan civilization. Like many other cases, the expansion of the Mayan civilization was unsustainable it ultimately destroyed the environment that supported it.

BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY UNDER GETTING INTO THE TOPIC

Biologists have described one million species of the earth. In addition, they have estimated the number of the species from three million to thirty million. More than half of the species have their home in tropical forests. However, tropical forests rapidly being destroyed humans. Millions of hectares of tropical forests in Brazil, Indonesia and Malaysia have been cut down or burnt. The destruction of tropical forests is causing the rapid extinction of the natural species that are native there. Out of 2 million species living in the tropical rain forests, 4,000 to 6,000 species are being disappeared every year, and it might reach up to 27,000 in the future. First, rain forests species are a valuable resource because their genes may enable scientists to strengthen domesticated species. Researchers are using genes from the wild American oil palm to develop resistance to the disease called spear rot in domesticated African oil palm. Second, the wild species of the tropical forests are an underused, valuable source of wild plants that could be domesticated. Next, the endangered species of the tropical rain forests could be a source of important new medications. Vinblastine and vincristine are extremely effective in the treatment of two forms of cancer.

Although the rapid loss of tropical species cannot be stopped completely, it can be slowed if we address all its causes. First, conservation is a necessary component of a solution to the biodiversity crisis. By protecting the habitat of this species, it shows their extinction. Next, to provide the information needed for conservation and education, we need to speed up research into the species of the tropical rain forests. Only then people will realize the value of conservation. Finally, we need to reduce the economic pressures that force people to destroy the rain forests.

MAIN READING CLIMATE CHANGE: MANAGING THE GLOBAL GREENHOUSE

1.       INTRODUCTION

There has been an intense debate among both scientists and politicians about global warming and about the appropriate response to it. Some scientists say that the global climate has been changing. But some others have said that there is no strong evidence to support the claim. The article will try to help the public understand the issue of global warming.

2.       GLOBAL WARMING: FACTS AND UNCERTAINTIES

All scientists agree that gases like carbon dioxide, CFCs, and methane clearly produce a greenhouse effect because they prevent heat released by the earth from escaping into space. There is historical evidence linking increases in the earthÚs temperature to increased carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere. Now the amount of these gases has increased more than in the Ice Age. Any effects of greenhouse gases on climate will be felt worldwide and by future generations. Scientists have shown that the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has been increasing since 1800 because of the increase in carbon dioxide, methane gases, and more recently CFCs.

Industrialization, not processes occurring in nature, accounts for much of the increase in greenhouse gases over the last one hundred years. The burning of coal, oil and gas to generate energy necessary for industry and the use of the CFCs as cooling agents contributed to the increase in greenhouse gases. In order to feed the growing population of the world, more rice has to be produced and more cattle have to be raised. However, this increase in cattle rearing and rice production are major factors in the increase of methane in the atmosphere. Moreover, the burning of tropical forests in developing countries is a major contributor of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Following this some scientists have established that the earth has become warmer in the last one hundred years due to the rise of the sea level, and the reduction of the ice in the North Polar region and of the nonpolar inland glaciers. But some other scientists are not prepared to conclude that the warming trend of the last one hundred years is due to increased greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. They argue that every time the warming has not increased when the greenhouse gas has concentrated. Predicting the size of future temperature increases involves some uncertainty.

3.       POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Despite some political opposition, most scientists argue that the evidence justifies our taking immediate steps to cut the emission of global gases. We have to control global warming immediately. If temperature increases are between 2 and 6 degrees Celsius, the consequences for ecosystems will be extremely serious. Higher temperatures will also probably have a destructive impact on agriculture due to lack of enough water for irrigation. Higher temperatures will lead to a rise in ocean level, which may endanger vast areas of densely populated, low-lying land.

4.             RESPONDING TO THE THREAT

The majority of environmental scientists believe that we should take immediate measures to cut greenhouse gas emissions and avoid a future catastrophe. The industrial nations should be the first to start programs to reduce greenhouse gas emissions because they have been responsible to this tragedy. Governments must develop energy conservation policies that will reduce the demand for energy produced by burning fossil fuels. Newer and more efficient appliances should be developed to save energy. To replace fossil fuels, governments must also develop alternative, sustainable sources of energy, such as wind and hydrogen.

Policies to increase energy efficiency were successful in past. As a result, many industrial countries made fuel efficient cars. We could reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions substantially with technology that exists today. However, a major disadvantage of programs designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions is their enormous costs. The good news is that measures to stabilize atmospheric carbon dioxide at a safe level, though expensive, will not significantly slow the expected increase in global income.

Actions by the wealthier countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions will not solve the problem of global warming if we ignore emissions in developing nations. The industrialized world must ease the burden of debt carried by the poorer countries so that these nations can pursue ecologically responsible economic development. But debt forgiveness could be offered to developing countries who commit themselves to protecting the world ecology. Developing countries will also require increased economic and technical assistance if they are to help solve the problem of greenhouse gases.

5.       RETHINKING OUR PRIORITIES

The problem of global warming will not be resolved without massive expenditures by the developed nations. To make available the funds necessary to address the root causes of global warming, we must radically change our ways of thinking and behaving. We must consider that it is a global problem, not only the problem of a particular nation. People seeking a change in environmental thinking might be encouraged by public opinion polls showing changes in attitudes toward environmental issues. In a few international agreements, governments have committed themselves to reducing greenhouse gases. We have some reason for believing that a revolution in environmental thinking is still possible.

 VARIATION IN LANGUAGE

All languages, including English, vary and sociolinguistic is the scientific study of that variation. Linguistic variation can be found in peopleÚs pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. The first of the two main types of linguistic variation is between-group variation. It is known as regional varieties, i.e. dialect, and other group varieties. Regional dialects are probably the best-known type of between-group linguistic variation. A speaker is identified by his or her regional dialect. The English spoken by men is different from that spoken by women, with men tending to use non-standard forms more often than women.

Variation within the individual is the second main type of linguistic variation. Linguistic variation within the individual is associated with changes in the situation in which the individual finds himself or herself. Linguistic variation within the individual is exemplified in the different ways an individual might address others.

SOCIOLINGUISTIC RULES OF SPEAKING

According to sociolinguists, just having good linguistic competence in a second language is not enough for a second language learner. One has to have sociolinguistic competence, too. The conversation between the American host and the Japanese student offers an example of a situation in which people fail to communicate effectively, although their speech is without linguistic errors. Scientists conclude that there are rules for socially and culturally appropriate speech because miscommunication occurs between people whose speech is correct phonologically, grammatically and semantically. Empirical research has demonstrated the existence of rules for socially appropriate speech and of cultural differences in these rules.

Do differences in sociolinguistic rules mean that second language learners need to learn rules for appropriate speech in the new language? Because they are unaware of differences in rules for polite behaviour, people may unjustifiably form a negative opinion about a person from another culture. To avoid the potentially serious consequences of intercultural miscommunication, second language learners should be prepared to identify and use the sociolinguistic rules of the new culture.

CHILD LANGUAGE ACQUISITION: PHONOLOGY

Although the pronunciation of very young children differs a great deal from that of adults, it is easily understood by family members. It is imperfect. But it is useful to investigate which quality of childrenÚs imperfect speech enable adults to adjust to it and understand it. If we use the science of articulatory phonetics to describe childrenÚs speech, we find that it differs from adult English in systematic ways. There are clear patterns in the types of consonants, which the children is capable and incapable of producing at the early stages. As children get older, they learn to produce sound that they are incapable of saying at an earlier stage in their development. It is clear that children develop their own systematic version of English pronunciation for some researchers, this is evidence that humans are innately programmed to learn language.

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION: THE EARLY YEARS

1.       INTRODUCTION

ChidrenÚs acquisition of their native language, first five years of life, is an impressive achievement. They have learned perfect pronunciation, and continue to learn vocabulary and some grammatical patterns and new styles of speaking. The language acquisition process is completed successfully without the help of formal teaching. The child has linguistic interaction with the caregivers and his peers. Provided thay have access to the language spoken to their environment, all children successfully learn that language, regardless of their intellectual or socioeconomic differences. This article examines psycholinguistic research into how children acquire their native language.

2.       GOALS AND METHODS

Developmental psycholinguistics seeks to account for language acquisition by developing hypotheses from theories and testing them empirically. Ensuring that the data are accurate and representative is essential in child language acquisition research. Otherwise, this research will not be valid. Because of the complexity of language and human behaviour, research projects in developmental psycholinguistics usually have a narrow focus on small aspects of language acquisition.

3.       CHILDRENÚS ENGLISH AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF GRAMMAR

This article focuses on one component of chidrenÚs early English, its grammar because it will help us to know how he is making progress in phonology and vocabulary. ChildrenÚs developing grammar is first visible when they start producing two-word utterances. Their pronunciation is quite imperfect. If we study the data of childÚs language, we know that the language produced by children is creative. Next, the utterances of very young children are simpler than those of adults because children systematically omit function words. After this, the word-order patterns found in childrenÚs English show that their language is rule-governed. As childrenÚs utterances become longer, it becomes clear that their grammar increases in complexity, in addition to reflecting the rule-governed creativity of their language, childrenÚs errors of overgeneralization show that they construct their own grammatical rules.

4.       CAREGIVER LANGUAGE

Child-directed speech (CDS) is generally similar to speech used with adults, except during a short period when the child is about two years of age. For a short time, caregivers change their speech in a number of ways in order to make it easier for very young children to understand. Caregivers almost always react to children's speech as a natural attempt to communicate; they respond to its perceived meaning. Caregivers normally do not correct errors in grammar or pronunciation in children's English; when they do so, children are unable to use the correction.

5.       THEORIES OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

A theory of language acquisition must account for the properties of child and caregiver language: Children do not imitate consciously the adult's language. They are creative, but their language is based on rules. And their mistakes are not corrected by caregivers. There are two theories to explain the language acquisition.

The first one is the imitation-reinforcement theory, or I-R theory. It argues that language is acquired through a process of imitation and reinforcement. Imitation and reinforcement play some role in language acquisition. By relying in imitation, the I-R theory explain data that show children are not good imitators but excellent creators of language. The imitation-reinforcement theory also cannot explain the rule-governed nature of children's original utterances. Reinforcement cannot be a major component of child language acquisition because caregivers rarely  correct children's errors in grammar and pronunciation. And even if they correct the errors, children are unable or unwilling to correct their speech. The imitation-reinforcement (I-R) theory cannot explain how children continue developing their grammar and pronunciation without any correction from their caregivers.

There is another theory of language acquisition. It is called the creative construction theory , or CC theory. It argues that the ability to acquire language is innate in humans, and it can explain two general aspects of the process left unexplained by the I-R theory. These aspects are innateness and uniformity of children in language learning. The creative construction theory argues that children themselves play a very significant role in their acquisition of language, and they make very similar rule to those of the adults. By arguing that children are innately equipped to learn language, the creative construction theory is able to explain much that the I-R theory cannot. Although it is more adequate than the imitation-reinforcement unanswered. There still remains a great deal to be understood about the process of language acquisition.